Essay on Commentary on Gatsby Passage - 1878 Words

This passage located at the falling action of Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, after Jay Gatsby and Tom Buchanan’s argument (page 128-129) focuses on Gatsby recounting his initial courting of Daisy Buchanan. It contributes to the development of the novel, for it is the first time that Gatsby confronts his past and reveals his desperation to preserve his dream of attaining Daisy, which, the reader senses through Fitzgerald’s ominous tone, is coming to a hopeless end. Through Fitzgerald’s portrayal of Gatsby and Daisy’s relationship and Gatsby’s unconscious illusions, the passage addresses the themes regarding the arrogance of the rich, and the illusionary nature of the American Dream. The passage features Nick retelling Gatsby’s†¦show more content†¦The passage is structured into three sections, each differing in the use of narration, description, and dialogue. The first paragraph is Nick’s narration that prepares the reader to discover the â€Å"strange story† of Gatsby’s youth. The following five paragraphs are an intriguing mixture of narration and description. Gatsby’s descriptive revelation of his past is retold through by Nick’s narration. The filter of Nick’s own opinions inevitably affects the nuance of Gatsby’s experiences. Nick’s biased disapproval of the rich is conveyed through subtle words such as â€Å"bought luxury,† which implies his scorn for the rich who enjoy excessive luxury at the expense of others’ efforts.The last paragraph consists of Gatsby’s monologue only, in which the expression of his thoughts are independent of Nick’s opinion. Through t his Fitzgerald provides the reader with Gatsby’s honest thoughts, in which his illusions are further made obvious. For example, his misguided belief that Daisy thought he â€Å"knew a lot because [he] knew different things from her† is overconfident and idealistic, giving the reader an insight into his character. Throughout the passage, Fitzgerald further develops the characterization of Gatsby and Daisy and depicts their relationship.Show MoreRelatedCorrupting the American Dream in The Great Gatsby† by F. Scott Fitzgerald869 Words   |  4 PagesIn the novel, â€Å"The Great Gatsby† by F. Scott Fitzgerald, the author establishes materialism and wealth as a corruption to the American dream. The American dream embodies the idea of self-sufficient, honest and intelligent individual with a happy successful life. It is also the idea of the pursuit of happiness but Daisy Buchanan a wealthy aristocrat goes after the empty pursuit of pleasure, portraying her ch aracter as a disillusionment of the American dream and how much it lost its good values. TheRead MoreThe Method of Narration in ‘The Great Gatsby’ by F Scott Fitzgerald1331 Words   |  6 PagesMethod of narration is the writer’s crucial tool in conveying his story and with it his characters and message. In ‘The Great Gatsby’, F Scott Fitzgerald deploys this tool effectively to tell the tale of Jay Gatsby, a self-made man on a quest to find and win back the love of his life, Daisy Buchanan, through the eyes of Nick Carraway. As well as reflecting on the dreams and tragedy of that summer in Long Island, Nick’s narration gives us essential insight into the characters and key issues that FitzgeraldRead MoreThe American Dream And Perception Vs. Reality2236 Words   |  9 PagesStatement: In The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald uses Jay Gatsby to exemplify the themes of the American dream and perception vs. reality. Historical Context Topic Sentence #1: Fitzgerald was inspired to write The Great Gatsby by his own life and ideas. Supporting Detail: Fitzgerald enjoyed the showiness and the glamour, but he also saw through it. He labeled it as a heightened sensitivity to the promises of life. 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On the white steps an obscene word, scrawled by some boy with a piece of brick, stood out clearly in the moonlight, and I erased it, drawing my shoe raspingly along the stone. Then I wandered down to the beach and sprawled out on the sand. Most of the big shore places were closed now and thereRead MoreReservation Blues By Sherman Alexie And The Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1894 Words   |  8 Pagesand The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald. These pieces of literature can be read as a larger commentary on the mutation of the American Dream and how it is now more of a negative desire for greed and material. Both Fitzgerald and Alexie surmise that the American Dream has been twisted and corrupted into an uncontrolled desire that has become unattainable for many and that the pursuit of the dream has become dangerous. In The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald use the characters of Gatsby and Myrtle toRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald Essay2369 Words   |  10 Pages People’s actions or choices are antecedents to the reactions of others that follow, whether positive or negative. The Great Gatsby, in written and film form, is a testament to the innate desire of people to possess that which they perceive will bring them happiness regardless of the true physical and psychological results. The perception of the American dream is encompassed in a world devoid of moral balance seen through the eyes of a pessimistic bystander, Nick Carraway, and lived out through aRead MoreThemes Of The Great Gatsby2450 Words   |  10 PagesMarch 2016 Themes in The Great Gatsby F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby is widely regarded as one of the best novels of the 20th century. The decadence and frivolity of the roaring twenties is apparent on the surface of The Great Gatsby but underneath you will find themes that include a subtext of taboo homosexuality; the treatment and portrayal of women; and the corruption and falseness associated with the established rich and the nouveau riche. The Great Gatsby was published during a time ofRead MoreAnalysis Of Thomas F. Mathews The Mistake Of The Emperor Mystique1388 Words   |  6 Pageshe provides, but to an educated reader, the handpicked support for Mathew’s revolutionary argument weakens it. Author and art historian Stephen Andrew Cooper handles the topic better by acknowledging counterclaims. His book, Marius Victorinus Commentary on Galatians, brings up the widely held view that the â€Å"legitimization of Christianity through the Christianization of the emperors created the greatest impact on Christian art† (Cooper 55). Unlike Mathews, Cooper offers both the pro-Emperor MystiqueRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1861 Words   |  8 PagesHow has your understanding of the moral, social and/or political issues in The Great Gatsby been informed by an awareness of the context in which it was written? â€Å"Pleasure was the color of the time.† Harold Clurman s famous quote refers to the incredible excess and glamour of the 1920s, a reality The Great Gatsby explores to a great extent. Author F. Scott Fitzgerald s discussion of pertinent social and moral issues in the novel must be framed by a knowledge and awareness of the society in which

Essay about Animal Testing - 605 Words

Animals have long sense been a part of human life. The dog for example is thought to have been the first animal to be domesticated by humans, sometime around 13,000–10,000 B.C., from wolves. It is not known for sure how humans gained the trust of the Canines but in any event they did, and soon found dogs to be reliable companions. Animals have aided us any many ways, from offering protection and companionship. They should be respected and loved for loyalty; however it has been a very common practice to test household items, cosmetics and pharmaceutical products on animals for a very long time. Countless of innocent creatures are killed, or live a maimed life thanks to the endeavors of human scientist who use them to further there research.†¦show more content†¦He is known as the father of vivisection. â€Å"Vivisection means the cutting up of a living animal, and historically referred only to experiments that involved the dissection of live animals.† (AllSands, History Of Animal Testing) In 1859, Charles Darwin wanted to better understand how the human body functioned; therefore he used animals, who are much like humans to further his studies through many forms of experimentation. Recently animal testing has turned into a highly controversial and intense topic. The nature of the test and the effect on the animal which is being tested is what causes the debates. For example, very few would find animal testing wrong when testing animal food. It would be seen as a taste test, however using an animal to test a cosmetic for skin rashes, and hair loss is seen in a different view. People who are for animal testing states that it help researches to discover drugs and treatment that can aid humans. Researchers claim that animal experimentation is a must in order to help us as human being. They say that many medical advances have come from animal testing. There have been advances in cancer treatment and even HIV. Because of this, it is said that animals are vital for improving human health. Another argument that supports the testing of animals is that it actually helps scientist to known for sure if the drugs or cosmetic they want to sell to the public is safe. Since the products are tested on the animals ahead of time,Show MoreRelatedAnimal Testing678 Words   |  3 Pages Animal testing is a controversial topic in today’s society, much more than it was 100’s of years ago. Testing on animals was practiced long ago, and is still practiced today. Greek writings about vivisection [the dissection of a live organism] can be found dated as early as 500 BC. At that time, in Ancient Rome and Alexandria, and later in Greece, vivisection was originally practiced on human criminals, but prohibitions on the mutilation of the human body soon arose. This caused a reliance on animalsRead MoreTesting On Animals : The Dangers Of Animal Testing1375 Words   |  6 Pagesnumber of animals that undergo constant suffering in the name of human vanity. Animal testing was originally introduced in the early 20th century and is still prominent today. It is morally unacceptable to experiment on animals for human purposes. The procedures used in animal testing are cruel and inhumane, nor are they the most reliable source of data; resulting in many mishaps. Moreover , with the perpetual advancements in technology, there are several alternative methods making animal testing unnecessaryRead MoreHuman Testing : The Benefits Of Animal Testing802 Words   |  4 PagesAnimal testing has helped us for years discover cures for sickness in humans and sometimes even animals. But as long as they test the animals humanely, animals can be tortured with pain from the testing. However many efforts are being made to reduce the testing to a minimum. Scientists know that without the tests they wouldn’t know how to check the safety of new drugs. If there was no animal testing scientists would have probably resulted into something very unacceptable, human testing. And scientistsRead MoreThe Cruelty of Animal Testing1644 Words   |  7 PagesAnimal testing is a completely unnecessary act of cruelty and should not be allowed for various reasons. It is superfluous for innocent animals to undergo chemical testing of any sort, not only do they suffer, but there are other more humane alternatives to test products. Many people who are in favor of animal testing do not know of these safer more humane alternatives. Many methods have been developed to help stop animal testing, and improve the health system of all human beings. A significantRead MoreThe Importance Of Animal Testing1240 Words   |  5 Pages Animal testing has long played a part in the science of testing, and it still plays a very important role in the medical world. Testing on animals in order to create a cure for AIDS is one thing, but testing on animals for human vanity is another. Animal testing is used to test the safety of a product. It has kept some very unsafe substances out of the cosmetic world. However, in this day in age, animal testing is not the only way to test the safety of a product. Animal testing in cosmetics hasRead MoreEssay on Animal Testing1383 Words   |  6 Pagesand Behavior Animal testing is not a problem in today’s society because it is beneficial to humans. It seems unethical to put animals through such pain and torture, but if we stopped it completely there would be a large amount of human lives lost. How could this be? The further advancements in medical and technological science is inevitable. Therefore, if the testing must be done to learn more about the brain and body, which spe cies (animals or man) seems expendable for such testing. The real questionRead MoreThe Negatives of Animal Testing1027 Words   |  5 Pageshave been tested on animals; from lipstick and shampoo to dish soap and foot powder. Even the white ink on an MM has been tested on animals. To some, this statement may be alarming and even disturbing – to others it may not mean much at all. Either way, the debate over animal testing has gained much popularity in recent decades. Animal testing has been done since at least 500 BC; even Aristotle experimented on animals for scientific reasoning. Around 200 AD, dissecting animals in public was actuallyRead More Animal Testing Essay710 Words   |  3 Pagesanimal testing â€Å"Beauty without cruelty† is the outcry that can be heard from animal right activists around the world. The FDA does not require companies to perform tests on animals but if the cosmetic product contains chemicals that can be seen as toxins, testing becomes a necessity. There are currently thirteen safety tests that are performed on animals. Anti-testing activists deem these unnecessary and consider them to be cruel. â€Å"Fourteen million animals are used currently in the U.SRead MoreThe Rights Of Animal Testing2041 Words   |  9 Pagesrights of all animals with further argument or debates, do humans have the right to use animals on medical testing and lab use? There are several issues that can be placed in this argument this research will acknowledge four important topics in the rights of animal testing. Is it right to use animals for testing? Is it right to compare animal DNA to human DNA in these animal experiments? Is it right to use real animals instead of computers to generate results? Is it right to state animals are beingRead MoreThe Efficiency Of Animal Testing1394 Words   |  6 PagesEfficiency of Animal Testing For many years, the primary way to make advances in biomedical science was through experimentation on animals, also known as vivisection. This method involves using different species of animals in experiments and developmental procedures to determine toxicity, dosing, and effectiveness of test drugs before proceeding to human clinical trials. However; the use of animals in testing laboratories is becoming less common due to improved alternative options. Animal experimentation

Labor-Leisure Model in the Everyday Life Free Essays

Labor-Leisure Model in the Everyday Life I like many other college students am not currently seeking work in the labor force. As a student athlete playing golf I am constantly juggling my time between my studies as a senior Economics major, and maximizing my golfing potential and chasing my ultimate dream of becoming a professional golfer. Throughout this paper I will explain how I maximize my utility in different circumstances using the labor-leisure model. We will write a custom essay sample on Labor-Leisure Model in the Everyday Life or any similar topic only for you Order Now As I am not actively looking for work in the labor market my indifference curve is so steep there are no tangencies to my reservation wage, which is defined as the â€Å"lowest wage rate at which a worker is willing to accept a job. † By dedicating all my time to studying and practise, and none to the labor force my indifference curve has no tangency to my constraint. As a rational person who wants to maximize utility; the current wage rate is not high enough for me to substitute work for things I prefer to do in my free time, such as playing golf or studying for a test. I am fortunate enough that my parents have the opportunity to help me financially during my time at college, so I have a source of â€Å"unearned income† that I receive for working zero hours in the labor market. This â€Å"unearned income† is shown by the spike in figure 1 below. As mentioned above because of my high regard for leisure and the modest wages I am offered as a student with some college experience; my indifference curve has no tangencies to my constraint. Figure 1 depicts where utility is maximized at point A. As a utility maximizer it suits my personal preferences to accept the unearned income given to me by my parents and consume more leisure time. â€Å"Point [A] represents the highest utility that can be reached by [myself], given the budget constraint. † The labor-leisure model makes the assumption that leisure is a desirable product, which in my case it is. Furthermore, substituting three or four hours in the labor force for more hours of leisure time is an easy decision for a utility maximizer to make. The government faces similar problems with modern day welfare. Because of the modest wages offered to unskilled workers, and size of recent welfare packages many people maximize utility by removing themselves from the labor force, and accept benefits offered by the government whilst consuming more leisure time. As mentioned above, during school I am constantly dividing my time between practising for golf, and studying my current classes. Using the Production Possibilities frontier (shown in Figure 2 below) I can graphically show the choices I make in a variety of scenarios as a utility maximizer. Like most economic models it is a simplification of reality that represents â€Å"economic processes by a set of variables and a set of logical quantitative relationships between them. † To maintain the simplicity of the model I am assuming my average day consists of 16 hours, of which I divide my time between either practising golf or studying. I rarely dedicate all my waking hours to specifically golf or studying, but for the consistency of this model that assumption will be made. Figure 2 shows my personal production possibilities frontier, which â€Å"shows the alternative outputs of [golf practise] and [studying] that can be produced† by myself in any given day. â€Å"The production possibility curve clearly exhibits the notion of technical efficiency. † Any point inside the curve is considered inefficient, and any point outside the curve is unachievable. The production possibility frontier clearly shows that depending on how I allocate my time directly affects my productivity in both areas. For example, if I dedicate a disproportionate amount of time to studying my golf performance will decline as my grades increase, and vice-versa. As shown in Figure 2 there are many different combinations of golf practise and studying. Maximizing utility in this model is my selection of the most appropriate combination of studying and golf practise for the circumstances of that day. One of the biggest advantages of playing an individual sport is having the ability to design a schedule that suits my day to day activity. Points A, B, C, D and E all represent possible utility maximizing schedules on my production possibilities frontier. There are many factors that could affect my everyday schedule. For example, If I have a particularly important tournament coming up I may find it utility maximizing to substitute some hours studying for some hours practising at the golf course. This schedule would make my indifference curve steeper than usual, like the indifference curve U4 in figure 2. My grades may suffer at this schedule; however, performing well in tournaments also just as important so the schedule is still utility maximizing. I will maximize utility at a completely different point on my production possibilities frontier during finals week. I will be more likely to substitute hours practising golf for time studying during finals week. As time spent studying becomes more valuable my indifference curve will become much flatter than on an ordinary day, like the indifference curve U2 in figure 2. As mentioned above, there are obvious flaws to this production possibilities frontier. However, an economic model is a simplification of reality that represents â€Å"economic processes by a set of variables and a set of logical quantitative relationships between them. I have never spent an entire day where I dedicated all my waking hours to either studying or practising golf. So despite point F on figure 2 not statistically being utility maximizing it is where I normally operate. Normal daily activities like eating, talking with friends and other general errands are not considered in this model. The shaded area in f igure 2 represents time I spend doing activities that are unaccounted for by golf practise and studying. I plan to graduate in May 2013 with a Bachelors of Science degree in Economics. My degree is a sign to potential employers that I have been trained in the field of economics. According to the â€Å"Investment model of education† I will move from a male with â€Å"some college† experience to a male â€Å"college graduate. † The investment model of education suggests that college graduates are more likely to receive additional training in their early years of employment; resulting in higher wages. The potential for a higher wage could have a notable affect on my post-college labor-leisure model. The higher wage creates a steeper constraint, as seen below in Figure 3. Figure 3: Post-College Labor-Leisure Model If offered a wage high enough, the new constraint could become steep enough to where my indifference curve would have a point of tangency with my reservation wage, as seen above. As a result of the additional training I have received (a college education) my constraint has moved from the line AD to line AE. The severe increase in wage has increased my cost of consuming leisure considerably. My utility is now maximized by joining the labor force, as seen in the move from U1 to U2 on figure 3. The radical change to my labor-leisure model has not taken place without a huge substitution and income effect. The new wage greatly increased my costs of consuming leisure, so much so I substituted some hours of leisure for hours of work. This is known as the substitution effect, and can be seen graphically between points B and C. An income effect is also present. After graduation my parents will not continue to hand me money for nothing in return, so the unearned income at point F is no longer achievable. This decrease in income reduces my purchasing power of leisure and will increase my demand for labor hours. This income effect is shown graphically between points A and B. The total effect can be seen graphically between points A and C. The substitution and income effect usually move an individual’s preferences in opposite directions, but because I was choosing to work zero hours the presence of either effect could only increase my demand for work. In conclusion, I can portray how I make everyday decisions using the labor-leisure model and production possibilities frontier frameworks. As with most economic models, it drastically simplifies reality. The simplification however is necessary, due to the complex nature of economic variables; simplicity aids clarity. For an economic model to be successful two appropriate variables must be chosen. In my personal instance the relationship between practising golf and studying for classes are directly related. By simplifying and selecting applicable variables complex economic information can be expressed logically, as shown above. Works Cited EconoMonitor : EconoMonitor The Current Downturn: Labor-leisure Tradeoff or Technological Regress. † EconoMonitor : EconoMonitor A » The Current Downturn: Labor-leisure Tradeoff or Technological Regress. Web. 01 November 2012. . Heckman, James. JSTOR. Web. 05 November 2012. . Ehrenberg, Ronald G. , and Robert Stewart. Smith. Modern Labor Economics: Theory and Public Policy. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1987. Print. â€Å"Labor Supply. † Labor Supply. Web. 06 November 2 012. . Nicholson, Walter. Intermediate Microeconomics: And Its Application. Houghton, Harcourt, 2000. Print. How to cite Labor-Leisure Model in the Everyday Life, Essay examples

Rousseau And Mill On The Arts And Sciences Essay Example For Students

Rousseau And Mill On The Arts And Sciences Essay In 1750, while visiting an imprisoned Diderot in Vincennes, Rousseau read an advertisement for an essay contest sponsored by the Academy of Dijon. The theme of the contest was Whether the Restorations of the Sciences and Arts has contributed to the purification of morals. Writing in the negative, Rousseau won the contest and a year later, his first discourse On the Sciences and Arts was published. The arguments within were strongly against the emphasis that the European Enlightenment had placed on reason and the universality of human nature. As such, Rousseau was lauded by critics and vilified by supporters of the Enlightenment. A century later, in 1863, English citizen John Stuart Mill wrote what would later become one of the most important philosophical works, Utilitarianism. In Utilitarianism, Mill argued for the Greatest Happiness Principle, which holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness (Utilitarianism 2). He also elucidated, in response to an objection of this principle, that there are differences in the qualities of pleasures, arguing that there is no known Epicurian theory of life which does not assign to the pleasures of the intellect, of the feelings and imagination, and of the moral sentiments, a much higher value as pleasures than to those of mere sensation (Utilitarianism 2). In his essay Civilization, Mill discusses the role that the developments in art and science play in moving towards a more civilized society, and defends the progress that society has made in these areas against the noble savagery of a less civilized society, such as the one defended by Rousseau. John Stuart Mills teleological philosophy of right action, that holds an action is right when it produces the best consequences contrasts sharply with the competing deontological view of the time, which holds that an action is right or moral independent of its consequences. In a teleological line of reasoning, it would seem as though things like artistic and scientific developments, that enrich and prolong life, would be justified if not necessitated by society, and unsurprisingly, J. S. Mill supports these. In Utilitarianism, Mill talks about what he believes to be the great positive evils of the world, or those things with would be universally decried and avoided by societies if at all possible. Mill was optimistic about the ability of human progress in the arts and sciences to eventually get rid of human ills altogether. He argued: Poverty, in any sense implying suffering, may be completely extinguished by the wisdom of society, combined with the good sense and providence of individuals. Even the most intractable of enemies, disease, may be indefinitely reduced in dimensions by good physical and moral education, and proper control of noxious influences; while the progress of science holds out a promise for the future of still more direct consequences over this detestable foe (Utilitarianism 7). This, in part, also explains why Mill was such an ardent advocate of free speech and individual liberties. He believed, that in a free marketplace of ideas, the best ideas sponsored by those with a natural propensity towards them, would rise to the top and push the arts and sciences forward. He warned, however, that society did often times fail to recognize the ideas that would benefit society, and that ensuring individual liberties was the only safeguard against societal suppression of these ideas against its better judgment. In the third chapter of On Liberty, Mill argues: If it were felt that the free development of individuality is one of the leading essentials of well-being; that it is not only a co-ordinate element with all that is designated by the terms civilization, instruction, education, and culture but itself is a necessary part and condition of those things, there would be no danger that liberty would be undervalued, and the adjustment of the boundaries between it and social control would present no extraordinary difficulty. But the evil is that individual spontaneity is hardly recognized by the common modes of thinking, having any intrinsic worth, or deserving any regard on its own account (On Liberty 1). In his essay on Civilization, Mill describes two different types of civilization: the first being the idea that a civilized country is more eminent in its best characteristics, - that its citizens are farther advanced on the road to perfection. They are happier, wiser, and nobler than they would be otherwise. The second type of civilization that Mill describes is civilization as a distinguishing factor from savagery, or that which differentiates Europeans and ancient barbarians. Mill accepts as an uncontested truth that the first type of civilization would be embraced by all people, but wonders as to whether civilization, in the second sense, tends to impede certain goods (Civilization 148). Jean-Jacques Rousseau would be less generous towards the uncontestable benefits of the civilizing forces in both definitions. With regard to the first definition, the logical strain that: individual progress leads to scientific and artistic breakthroughs, and these lead to societal development in the arts and sciences, which in turn lead to things like new medicines that cure diseases and increase aggregate happiness, seems undeniable. Rousseau, however, would have retorted that Mill was overlooking a step: that the progress that leads to the development of, for example, the positive technologies of medicine and transportation also engender the things like pollution, overcrowding, urbanization, and disease that theyre designed to remedy. Rousseau calls these associations the false pathways in the investigation of the sciences (Discourse on the Sciences and the Arts 11). He anticipates those who defend the false associations of progress, when they discover the failure of their logic, to fall back on arguments like: What purposes would jurisprudence serve without the injustices of men? What would history become if there were no tyrants, no wars, no conspirators? What would we do with the arts without the luxury that feeds them? (Discourse 11). It is reasonable to believe that Rousseau does not wish or expect a drastic abandonment of artistic and scientific development (in fact he argues that in some capacity they may be necessary for society), but he does advocate a scaling back of abundance and luxury as they exert a corruptive influence on the arts and sciences. Such a proposal reintroduces Mills second definition of civilization: the attributes of modern society that distinguish it from primitivism. It is important to note, first, that Rousseau does not simply propose a na? ? †¡ve plea for primitivism, and he advocates far more than an exhortation to his contemporaries to abandon culture and returned to some happy pre-civilized condition (Gay 1). To understand this, it would be helpful to first look at how Rousseau understands individuals in the state of nature. In a natural state, Rousseau believes that individuals enjoy a healthy self regard and sympathy for other individuals. Social Performance By Royal Dutch Shell Commerce EssayThis is a reading age; and precisely because it is so reading an age, any book which is the result of profound meditation is, perhaps, less likely to be duly and profitably read than at a former period. The world reads too much and too quickly to read well (Civilization 167). How does Mill ultimately propose to solve these problems in conjunction with the continued human progress in the arts and sciences? The moral evils of civilization that have been enumerated so far are first that the individual is lost and becomes impotent in the crowd, and second, that individual character itself becomes more relaxed and enervated. For the first evil, Mill proposes, the remedy is greater and more perfect combination among individuals; and for the second, national institutions of education, and forms of policy, calculated to invigorate the individual character (Civilization 169). Rousseau is also largely a proponent of society educating its citizens to appreciate certain things over others, but he questions how Mill plans to build combination among individuals in a highly-individualized society. In terms of a spirit of cooperation, Mill points to the growing trend in Europe towards the dissolution of competitive businesses due to the fall of profits and consequent inc reases in population and capital. He argues that this trend will lead not to the complete extinction of competition, but to business administered by, and for the benefit of, a general association of the whole community. In terms of the impact that this collectivization of business has on the arts and sciences, Mill says that it will push them forward, because otherwise the amount of human labor, and labor of the most precious kind, now wasted, and wasted too in the cruelest manner, for want of combination, is incalculable (Civilization 170). Rousseau, in a letter to DAlembert, argues that the progression of the arts and sciences (specifically the arts) is damaging to the political economy of a country, and traces five distinct harms that it incurs. The first is a slackening of work as people will be encouraged to pursue amusement rather than to work (On Rousseau 84). This is consistent with the vice of idleness that Rousseau talks about the arts and sciences being born out of and reintroducing into society in Discourse on the Sciences and the Arts. The second disadvantage of the progression of the arts and sciences on political economy is an increase in expenses, whereby individuals are forced to spend more on things like civil dress for theater, and the latest developments in medicine and technology, like the availability of steroids for competitive athletes or plastic surgery for those dissatisfied with the way in which they appear to others. The third argument that Rousseau puts forward is an argument from decrease in trade, because less is produced and prices are higher. Fourth, the establishment of taxes generated from needing to keep roads to the theater accessible (I have no idea), and finally the introduction of luxury. This last point is Rousseaus most compelling, that, not unlike the amor propre that arises in a state of nature, women will attend the arts not just to see the show, but to be seen as well and those with different social statuses will want to demonstrate their status with their dress. Such displays will reify class distinction and destroy the healthy sense of community that government and society should seek to create between the individuals within it. We have physicists, geometers, chemists, astronomers, poets, musicians, painters; Rousseau pointed out, we no longer have citizens (Discourse 17). Most importantly, Rousseau goes on to say, the geometers, chemists, astronomers, poets, musicians, and painters of society are simply unnecessary. In Part One of his Discourse, Rousseau elaborates on the foundations of society, and claims that: The mind has its needs, as does the body. The needs of the latter are the foundations of society; the needs of the former make it pleasant. While the government and the laws see to the safety and well-being of assembled men, the sciences, letters and the arts, less despotic and perhaps more powerful, spread garlands of flowers over the iron chains with which they are burdened, stifle in them the sense of that original liberty for which they seem to be born, make them love their slavery, and turn them into what is called civilized peoples (Discourse 3). The civilized values impressed upon us by the arts and sciences misrepresent what are our real ethical mores. The extent of this misrepresentation is so severe, that, if an inhabitant of distant lands who sought to form an idea of European mores on the basis of the state of the sciences among us, the perfection of our artsà that foreigner, I say, would guess our mores to be exactly the opposite of what they were (Discourse 4). Mill would also be distressed by Rousseaus following argument: that the introduction of art has eliminated differences of character between individuals. He argues that before art had fashioned our manners and taught our passions to speak an affected language, our mores were rustic but natural, and differences in behavior heraldedà differences in characterà Today, when more subtle inquiries and a more refined taste have reduced the art of pleasing to established rules, a vile and deceitful uniformity reigns in our mores (Discourse 4). The overarching effec t of the arts and sciences on society is not, like Mill argues, to promote the accomplishments of the individual, but to push those accomplishments in a particular direction in line with the refined tastes of civility, but not with the will of the individual. III. Conclusion It can be said of Jean-Jacques Rousseau that he wanted to restore individual humans to their natural goodness. An ideal society, in his opinion, would work through the general will of its citizens to preserve the natural goodness of the individual. Absent from this society, except in basic forms that were necessitated by society to keep corrupt individuals from pursuing wickedness in other things (Rousseaus own play Preface to Narcissus: Or the Lover of Himself), would be the arts and sciences, as they impress false cultural mores upon us, stifle our individuality and ideas about our separateness from government, hurt political economy, and supplant traditional virtues like heroism and activity. On the other hand, J.S. Mill would stand in proposition of the march of the modern arts and sciences. Arguing from a utilitarian point of view, improvements in the sciences minimize pain and increase the quantity of life, and improvements in the arts create a forum for discussion and the free flow of ideas. These, according to the differences in pleasures, present a better lifestyle than the primitive, militaristic attributes of a less civilized society. Arguing from a libertarian point of view, from the free speech that is essential to a free and good society spring the arts and sciences, as the ideas of innovators are pushed to the top in the marketplace of ideas. It is fair to say that Rousseau never really believed in getting rid of civilization or the arts and sciences altogether, but it is true that, unlike Mill, he believed that the arts and sciences playing less of a prominent role in the way societies are shaped would be, on balance, a good thing.